The International Centre for Convict Studies

Data from 'Convict Workers'

Tables from Stephen Nicholas (ed.) Convict Workers: Reinterpreting Australia's past (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988)

Internal links to tables:

Table 3.1: Forced migration of Convict Labour, 1787-1920

Table 5.2: Literacy Rate for Major Occupations

Table 5.3: Work Related Theft: Occupations with at least 30 observations (Percentages)

Table 5.5: Nicholas-Shergold Skill Classification of English Workforce and English Convicts (Percentages)

Table 10.1: The Organisation of Public Work

Table 12.2: Weekly Rations and Calories of Convict, Coerced and Unfree Labour

Table 12.5: Hours of Work and Length of Work Week for Comparative Labour Systems

Table 3.1: Forced migration of Convict Labour, 1787-1920 (top)

From Stephen Nicholas and Peter R. Shergold, 'Transportation as Global Migration', in S. Nicholas, (ed.) Convict Workers: Reinterpreting Australia's Past, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988), pp. 28 - 39, p. 30.

Period of transportation Origin Destination Flow Stock

1787-1825 India Sumatra (Bencoolen)^a 4000-6000 500(1818), 800-900(1823),

1788-1840 Britain^b New South Wales 80,000 12,200(1821), 21,825(1831), 26,977(1841)

1790-1860 India^c,d Straits Settlements^e 15,000 4000(max.), 3000(1857), 2275(Singapore 1860), 1255(Penang), 532(Malacca), 110-1200(av. in Singapore)

1801-1852 Britain Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) 67-69,000 3827(1821), 12,018(1831), 20,062(1841), 24,188(1847)

1815-1837 India Mauritius - 800(mid-1830s)

1820-1920 ^f European Russia Siberia 916,000(1823-98), 1,000,000(1870-1920) -

1824-1863 Britain Bermuda 9000 1600(max)

1842-1875 Britain Gibraltar 9000

1000(max)

1846-1850 Britain New South Wales, Victoria 3000 -

1847-1856 Hong Kong Straits Settlements - 94(1864)

1849-1873 Ceylon ^c Malacca^g 1000-1500 659(1868)

1850-1868 Britain Western Australia 9700 3,060(1854), 3305(1866)

1854-1920 France^h French Guinea (Cayenne) - 3,780(1855), 6465(1911)

1858-1920 India^d Andaman Islands 11,373(1906-18) 14,000(max), 12,000(1901)

1865-1897 France New Caledonia
24,000, 18,078(1852-67), 3656(1867-79)

9,000(1891), 12,000(1894)

^a Bencoolen passed into Dutch hands when it was exchanged for Malacca in 1825.

^b Small numbers of convicts were sent from Canada, the West Indies, St. Helena, Cape Colony, Mauritius, India and Ceylon.

^c Until 1854 small numbers of Europeans resident in Asia were also transported to the Straits Settlements.

^d Also includes convicts from Burma.

^e Comprised Sinngapore, Penang, Malacca.

^f European Russians had been exiled to Siberia as early as the 1590s.

^g Small numbers were sent to other Straits Settlements.

^h Small numbers of political prisoners had been condemned to French Guiana during the Revolution: 193 in 1794, and 530 in 1797.

Table 5.2: Literacy Rate for Major Occupations (top)

Stephen Nicholas and Peter R. Shergold 'Convicts as Workers' in Stephen Nicholas (ed.) Convict Workers: Reinterpreting Australia's past (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988), pp. 62-84, p. 66.

(Occupations with more than 20 observations)

Occupation Read and/or write Literacy rate (%) Number

Sweep 41 97

Caneworker 57 23

Miner 58 130

Labourer 60 4173

Farmlabour 60 403

Ropemaker 60 53

Cook 60 65

Boatman 61 443

Ploughman 62 562

Brickmaker 64 142

Factory labourer 64 74

Woolcarder 64 29

Carrier 65 196

Locksmith 65 23

Herdsman 66 226

Nailmaker 67 60

Tanner 67 59

Fisherman 67 24

Spinner 69 58

Messenger 69 636

Plasterer 70 90

Bargeman 70 157

Livestock Dealer 70 22

Stockingmaker 71 34

Dyer 72 104

Dresser 73 202

Hawker 73 69

Silkweaver 74 34

Weaver 74 541

Brewer 74 22

Blacksmith 75 212

Brazier 75 20

Bricklayer 75 162

Engineer 75 21

Potter 76 36

Stableman 77 257

Groom 77 435

Furnituremaker 77 28

Generaliser 78 580

Mason 78 111

Ironmoulder 78 35

Waiter 79 35

Soldier 80 418

Seaman 80 278

Sawyer 81 158

Butcher 81 300

Coachman 82 95

Cabinetmaker 83 65

Cornmiller 83 55

Printer 83 65

Sailor 84 130

Whitesmith 84 97

Gardener 85 301

Barber 85 35

Cooper 86 37

Bootmaker 87 578

Porter 87 58

Buttonmaker 88 29

Brassfounder 88 62

Baker 88 217

Cutlerymaker 89 69

Saddlemaker 89 54

Tailor 89 297

Painter 90 146

Cottonspinner 92 47

Carpenter 93 265

Greengorcer 93 36

Watchmaker 94 47

Coachmaker 96 95

Shopman 96 40

Clerk 99 136

Jeweller 100 36

Table 5.3: Work Related Theft: Occupations with at least 30 observations (Percentages) (top)

England Ireland

Occupation Lower bound estimates
Type of crime
Upper bound estimates Lower bound estimates
Type of crime
Upper bound estimates

Tools Goods Master All theft Tools Goods Master All theft

Allwork - - 6.0 42.0 - - 1.5 92.7

Baker - 5.8 2.9 98.1 - 3.2 - 96.8

Bargeman - 2.4 2.4 94.1 - - - -

Blacksmith 3.1 4.12 - 96.9 - 7.2 - 84.6

Boatman 2.2 2.2 - 95.7 - - - -

Bootmaker 0.4 6.9 2.4 94.7 1.9 3.8 1.0 75.0

Brassfounder - 2.6 - 94.7 - - - -

Bricklayer - 2.0 - 96.7 - - - -

Butcher 1.5 40.8 0.8 95.4 1.7 38.3 - 86.7

Carpenter 4.3 - - 91.4 1.9 3.8 - 81.7

Clerk 2.5 5.0 2.5 95.0 - - - -

Coachman 2.9 2.9 5.9 85.3 - - - -

Cook 3.8 3.8 7.5 96.2 - 9.8 2.4 95.1

Cottonspinner 6.1 9.1 3.0 93.9 - - - -

Dairyhand - - - - - 3.73 0.9 97.2

Dyer - 6.3 - 95.2 - - - -

Factory labourer - - 2.0 96.1 - - - -

Farm labourer - 41.1 - 94.7 - 33.2 0.5 83.9

Farm servant 0.8 40.9 - 96.9 - 31.1 - 46.7

Gardener - 16.2 - 85.7 - - - -

General servant - - 0.7 93.4 - - 4.82 88.7

Groom - 9.4 1.0 93.1 - 9.6 2.1 86.2

Herdsman - 33.3 - 95.5 - 42.2 - -

Housemaid - - 6.7 95.3 0.5 - 2.1 93.2

Iron moulder - 6.7 6.7 96.7 - - - -

Kitchenhand - 1.3 2.7 94.7 0.5 8.7 - 92.3

Labourer 0.9 - 0.6 91.4 0.5 - 0.2 73.4

Laundress - 20.0 - 97.1 - 32.2 1.1 96.7

Mason 2.0 2.0 2.0 98.0 - - - -

Messenger 0.4 - 0.9 98.7 0.4 - - 94.9

Miner 1.0 4.1 - 95.9 - - - -

Nursemaid - 5.9 2.0 88.2 - 1.9 1.0 85.6

Painter 1.3 2.5 1.3 95.0 - - - -

Plasterer - 2.2 2.2 95.7 - 11.2 0.7 77.6

Ploughman 1.4 11.5 0.3 98.4 - - - -

Sawyer 2.5 3.7 - 93.8 - - - -

Seamstress - - - - - 32.4 3.0 97.1

Silkweaver - 6.5 - 90.3 - - - -

Stableman 1.7 4.2 0.8 98.3 - 9.4 - 90.6

Sweep - 2.1 - 100.0 - - - -

Tailor 0.9 12.3 5.7 96.2 - 16.0 - 65.3

Weaver 0.5 7.3 0.5 95.6 - 6.4 - 89.4

Whitesmith - - 2.3 95.3 - - - -

Table 5.5: Nicholas-Shergold Skill Classification of English Workforce and English Convicts (Percentages) (top)

Source:

Great Britain 1841 Census, Parliamentary Paper, 1841, XIV, C52; Convict Indents.

Nicholas-Shergold Class 1841 English census English convicts

1. Unskilled urban 8.2 21.6

2. Unskilled rural 20.3 4.9

3. Skilled building 7.9 8.1

4. Skilled urban 32.4 39.2

5. Skilled rural 6.9 7.0

6. Dealers 5.2 2.6

7. Public Service 5.7 4.0

8. Professional 2.9 1.5

9.Domestic Service 4.6 11.2

10. Occupations not elsewhere classified 5.9 -

Table 10.1: The Organisation of Public Work (top)

Stephen Nicholas 'The Organisation of Public Work' in Stephen Nicholas (ed.) Convict Workers: Reinterpreting Australia's past (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988), pp. 152-166, pp. 155-6.

Sources:

Monthly Returns of the Government Working Gangs, Civil Department and Stationary Servants, Mitchell Library Roll 107, Series CO201/199, pp. 119-208; Archives Office of New South Wales, Assignment and Employment of Convicts 1827-1830 7/2689; Major Evans to Secretary Goulburn, 16 June 1825; Historical records of Australia, Series I, XI, pp. 655-8.

- Labour gangs task Teams task Armstrong skill class

Types of gang Fixed Variable Jobbing Fixed Variable Jobbing -

- - - - - - - -

INDOOR - - - - - - -

Lumber and dockyard workshop gangs - - - - - - -

Shoemaker Y - - - - - 3

Tailor Y - - - - - 3

Blacksmith - - - - - Y 3

Wheelwright - - - - - Y 3

Brassfounder - - - - - Y 3

Brickmaker - - - Y - Y 3

Harnessmaker - - Y - - - 3

Ropemaker - - - Y - - 3

Carpenters - - - - - Y 3

Shipwrights - - - - - Y 3

Blockmakers - Y - - - - 3

Sailmakers - - - - Y - 3

Painters - Y - - - - 3

Coopers - - - - - Y 3

Tanners - - - - Y - 3

- - - - - - - -

OUTDOOR - - - - - - -

Skilled building gangs - - - - - - -

Carpenter - - Y - - - 3

Bricklayer - - - Y - - 3

Sawyer - - - Y - - 3

Plasterer Y - - - - - 3

Stonesetting Y - - - - - 3

Stonecutting - - - Y - - -

Painters - - Y - - - 3

Mason - - - Y - - 3

- - - - - - - -

Agricultural gangs - - - - - - -

Clearing - - - - Y - 5

Ploughing - - - - Y - 4

Thrashing - - - - Y - 5

Fencing - - - Y - - 5

Hoeing - Y - - - - 5

Weeding - Y - - - - 5

Gardening - Y - - - - -

Grasscutting - - - - Y - 5

Woodcutting - - - - Y - 5

- - - - - - - -

Road and mining gangs - - - - - - -

Road/bridge - - - - - - 5

Quarry - - - - Y - 3

Guanomaking - - - Y - - 5

Limemaking Y - - - - - 5

Stonecutting - Y - - - - 3

- - - - - Y - -

Other gangs - - - - - - -

Water Carrying - - - Y - - 5

Store - - - - - - 5

Carters/Bullock - - - - Y - 5

Load/Unload - - - - Y - 5

Boatman - - - - - Y 3

Table 12.2: Weekly Rations and Calories of Convict, Coerced and Unfree Labour (top)

Stephen Nicholas 'The Care and Feeding of Convicts' in Stephen Nicholas (ed.) Convict Workers: Reinterpreting Australia's past (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988), pp. 180-198, p. 184

Food 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

- Convict 1819 Convict 1820 English gaol 1813 British army 1813-57 Indian bonded Civilian Nazi Germany Eastern POWs Nazi Germany American slave

- (lb) (lb) (lb) (lb) (lb) (lb) (lb) (lb)

Meat 10.5 7 1 5.25 7 1 1 4

Pork - (or 4) - - - - - -

Flour 10.5 7 - - - - - -

Sugar 1.5 1 - 7 - - - -

Rice 1 - - - 2 - - -

Maize - 3 - - 1.75 - - -

Tea - 0.25 - - - - - -

Salt - 0.5 - - 0.125 - - -

Fats - - - - - 0.5 - -

Potatoes - - - 7 - - 0.25 -

Bread - - - 9.57 - 11.5 11.5 -

Oatmeal - - - 2 - 6 5.75 -

Corn - - - - - - - 2

- Meat Pork - - - - - -

Weekly calories 34,419 27,433 22,344 19,040 22,250 26,507 14,509 13,152 28,392

Daily calories 4,903 3,919 3,192 2,720 3,178 3,787 2,073 1,879 4,056

Calories were calculated from A.A. Paul and D.A.T. Southgate, McCane and Widdowson's The Composition of Foods (4th Edition, M.R.C. Special Report No. 297 H.M.S.O. London, 1987) using a computer program provided by Dr. Ann Walker, Food Sciences, University of Reading.

Sources:

1. Report from the Commission of Inquiry in the State of the Colony of New South Wales (Bigge Report), Parliamentary Paper, 1822, XX C448, 63.

2. Statement on Way Convicts Were Employed in Various Government Establishments, 1824, AONSW 4/1775.

3. P. Priestly, Victorian Prison Lives: English Prison Biography, p. 150.

4. E. Spiers, The Army and Society 1815-1914, p. 58; A.R. Shelley, The Victorian Army at Home, pp. 64-4.

5. K. Saunders, Working in Bondage: The Origins and Bases of Unfree Labour in Queensland 1824-1916, p. 82.

6 & 7. E. Homze, Foreign Labour in Nazi Germany, p. 272.

8. P.A. David, Reckoning With Slavery, p. 261-5. The basic pork and corn ration delivered 2808 calories per day, but was supplemented with milk, butter, wheat, potatoes and meat.

Table 12.5: Hours of Work and Length of Work Week for Comparative Labour Systems (top)

Stephen Nicholas 'The Care and Feeding of Convicts' in Stephen Nicholas (ed.) Convict Workers: Reinterpreting Australia's past (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988), pp. 180-198, p. 188.

Category of worker Hours of work (average over year) Work week

Convict - -

Pre-1819 48 5.5

Post-1819 56 5.5

English hulks^a 57 6

- - -

Coerced - -

Soviet^b 76-84 7

Spain^c 62-88 6

Slaves^d 70-75 6

- - -

Contract - -

Queensland sugar e 60 6

Caribbean^f 72 6

- - -

Free English^g - -

Factory children 72-84 6

Agricultural labour 57 6

Home workers 48-90 6-7

Nailmakers 78 6

Metal 84 6

Iron 78 6

Tailors 72 6

Miners 42-48 6

Cotton mills 72-90 6

Indoor skilled (harness makers, coopers, weavers, shoemakers) 78 6

Outdoor skilled (brickmaker, painter, carpenters, painter, shipwrights) 57 6

Royal dockyards 63 6

Sources:

^a Reports of J.H. Capper, July 1816-Jan. 1817; July 1839-Feb. 1844, ML.Q365/G.

^b D.J. Dallin and B. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in Soviet Russia, pp. 10-11.

^c R. Pike, Penal Servitude in Early Modern Spain, p. 85.

^d P. David, Reckoning with Slavery, p. 267.

^e K. Saunders, Workers in Bondage: The Origins and Bases of Unfree Labour in Queensland 1824-1916, p. 73.

^f H. Tinker, A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas 1830-1920, p. 190.

^g J. Rule, The Labouring Classes in Early Industrial England 1750-1850, pp. 132-5; J. Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth Century Industry, pp. 38-62; M.D. George, England in Transition: Life and Work in the Eighteenth Century, p. 138.

C. Anderson